[91], Students who studied under Strauss, or attended his lecture courses at the University of Chicago, include George Anastaplo, Hadley Arkes, Seth Benardete, Laurence Berns, Allan Bloom, David Bolotin, Christopher Bruell, Charles Butterworth, Werner Dannhauser, Murray Dry, William Galston, Victor Gourevitch, Harry V. Jaffa,[92] Roger Masters,[93] Clifford Orwin, Thomas Pangle, Stanley Rosen, Abram Shulsky (Director of the Office of Special Plans),[94] Susan Sontag,[95] Warren Winiarski, and Paul Wolfowitz (who attended two lecture courses by Strauss on Plato and Montesquieu's The Spirit of the Laws at the University of Chicago). Tirannide e filosofia: Con un saggio di Leo Strauss ed un inedito di Gaston Fessard sj. While neoconservatism is concerned primarily with foreign policy, there is also some discussion of internal economic policies. [25] Thus the Socialist Party dissolved in 1972, and SDUSA emerged that year. In his remarkable Persecution and the Art of Writing, Strauss argued that the interpretive techniques and sensibility he brought to America came from Judaism and Islam. In particular, along with many in the pre-World WarII German Right, he feared people trying to force a world state to come into being in the future, thinking that it would inevitably become a tyranny. [11][12], During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the neoconservatives considered that liberalism had failed and "no longer knew what it was talking about", according to E. J. Indeed, Strauss wrote that Heidegger's thinking must be understood and confronted before any complete formulation of modern political theory is possible, and this means that political thought has to engage with issues of ontology and the history of metaphysics. As imperialism is largely considered unacceptable by the American media, neoconservatives do not articulate their ideas and goals in a frank manner in public discourse. First, the method is powerful, and the effort of intellectual discipline that it requires cultivates a particularly focused kind of discursive intelligence: Straussians, like the old New Critics, are often among the most penetrating readers of texts. Schmitt's position was therefore symptomatic of the modern-era liberal self-understanding. "A history of the origins of neoconservatism, The Rise of Common-Sense Conservatism is therefore timely, and one of its claims is quite delicious.Finnish scholar Antti Lepist pops one of the great conceits of contemporary politics: that the refined rightists of DC policy circles have nothing whatsoever to do with the populism of truckers, anti-vax folks, and, of course, Donald Trump. [45] Strauss's emphasis on moral clarity led the Straussians to develop an approach to international relations that Catherine and Michael Zuckert (2008) call Straussian Wilsonianism (or Straussian idealism), the defense of liberal democracy in the face of its vulnerability. Brittain, Christopher Craig. "From experience to law: Leo Strauss and the Weimar crisis of the philosophy of religion.". [10], Another source was Norman Podhoretz, editor of the magazine Commentary, from 1960 to 1995. McCarthy on Straussians. The influential 1970 bestseller The Real Majority by Ben Wattenberg expressed that the "real majority" of the electorate endorsed economic interventionism, but also social conservatism; and warned Democrats it could be disastrous to adopt liberal positions on certain social and crime issues. Neoconservatism, Capitalism, and Bourgeois Ethics", "Questions for William F. Buckley: Conservatively Speaking", "Trotskyism to Anachronism: The Neoconservative Revolution", "The weird men behind GeorgeW. Bush's war", Enter StageRight: Politics, Culture, Economics, The Neo-Conservative Agenda: Humanism vs. These include a belief that the state's land belongs to it even though it may have been acquired illegitimately and that citizenship is rooted in something more than accidents of birth. Facts and values. Strauss's argument is not that the medieval writers he studies reserved one exoteric meaning for the many (hoi polloi) and an esoteric, hidden one for the few (hoi oligoi), but that, through rhetorical stratagems including self-contradiction and hyperboles, these writers succeeded in conveying their proper meaning at the tacit heart of their writingsa heart or message irreducible to "the letter" or historical dimension of texts. In questioning established opinions, or in investigating the principles of morality, philosophers of old found it necessary to convey their messages in an oblique manner. A catalog of books in politics and political science. [99] Straussianism puts forward the possibility that past thinkers may have "hold of the truthand that more recent thinkers are therefore wrong". [112], He has also argued that domestic equality and the exportability of democracy are points of contention between them. Deutsch, Kenneth L. and John A. Murley, eds. However, Strauss believed that Schmitt's reification of our modern self-understanding of the problem of politics into a political theology was not an adequate solution. Paul points to the importance of Strauss's critique of relativism to explain the affinity that conservatives, especially conservative Catholics, have felt for him and his disciples. Throughout the volume he argues for the Socratic reading of civil authority and rejects the conventionalist reading (of which atheism is an essential component). In 1953, Strauss coined the phrase reductio ad Hitlerum, a play on reductio ad absurdum, suggesting that comparing an argument to one of Hitler's, or "playing the Nazi card", is often a fallacy of irrelevance. Edward Feser writes that "Strauss was not himself an orthodox believer, neither was he a convinced atheist. [51] She wrote: "No idea holds greater sway in the mind of educated Americans than the belief that it is possible to democratize governments, anytime and anywhere, under any circumstances Decades, if not centuries, are normally required for people to acquire the necessary disciplines and habits. He returned to Germany only once, for a few short days twenty years later. The choice not to use the word "preventive" in the 2002 National Security Strategy and instead use the word "preemptive" was largely in anticipation of the widely perceived illegality of preventive attacks in international law via both Charter Law and Customary Law. Journalists such as Seymour Hersh have opined that Strauss endorsed noble lies, "myths used by political leaders seeking to maintain a cohesive society". Kirkpatrick argued that by demanding rapid liberalization in traditionally autocratic countries, the Carter administration had delivered those countries to MarxistLeninists that were even more repressive. [18] However, these comparisons ignore anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist positions central to Leninism, which run contradictory to core neoconservative beliefs. [74] The neocons had little influence in the Obama White House,[75][76] and neo-conservatives have lost much influence in the Republican party since the rise of the Tea Party Movement. Many conservatives oppose neoconservative policies and have critical views on it. [85] However, like Thomas Aquinas, he felt that revelation must be subject to examination by reason. Cloth $32.50 ISBN: 978--226-76402-3. Marchetti, Giancarlo. That's the conclusion I've been forced to these last few years. The Straussian, apparently, is supposed to be somewhat confused about whether he himself is a philosopher, but he certainly takes pride in knowing much of what philosophers alone know. [86] At the end of The City and Man, Strauss invites us to "be open to the question quid sit deus ["What is God?"]" Chivil, Giampiero and Menon, Marco (eds). [108], In Reading Leo Strauss, Steven B. Smith rejects the link between Strauss and neoconservative thought, arguing that Strauss was never personally active in politics, never endorsed imperialism, and questioned the utility of political philosophy for the practice of politics. "Chinese Straussians" (who often are also fascinated by Carl Schmitt) represent a remarkable example of the hybridization of Western political theory in a non-Western context. Strauss argued that the city-in-speech was unnatural, precisely because "it is rendered possible by the abstraction from eros". )[26][27] SDUSA leaders associated with neoconservatism include Carl Gershman, Penn Kemble, Joshua Muravchik and Bayard Rustin.[28][29][30][31]. [33] During the late 1970s, neoconservatives tended to endorse Ronald Reagan, the Republican who promised to confront Soviet expansionism. While Strauss maintained a sympathetic interest in Zionism, he later came to refer to Zionism as "problematic" and became disillusioned with some of its aims. [81] When he was 17, as he said, he was "converted" to political Zionism as a follower of Vladimir Jabotinsky. They will be the two great autocratic powers, China and Russia, which pose an old challenge not envisioned within the new 'war on terror' paradigm. The "social welfare" associated with neoconservative ideas has been critiqued as a revival of social imperialism, particularly in the contexts of overseas assets, security interests, oil, oil technologies, and the doctrine of preemption. 7591 in. [69] In this context, disputes over the non-aggression principle in domestic and foreign policy, especially given the doctrine of preemption, alternatively impede and facilitate studies of the impact of libertarian precepts on neo-conservatism. Some also began to question their liberal beliefs regarding domestic policies such as the Great Society. Leo Strauss on Modernity and Economics". In 1995, he described his wish for a "conservative bohemia" in The Weekly Standard : Restaurants and . [105] Political scientist Zeev Sternhell states: "Neoconservatism has succeeded in convincing the great majority of Americans that the main questions that concern a society are not economic, and that social questions are really moral questions". [misquoted][76], Strauss proceeded to show this letter to Kurt Riezler, who used his influence in order to oppose Popper's appointment at the University of Chicago. Peter Graf Kielmansegg, Horst Mewes, Elisabeth Glaser-Schmidt (eds.). Regardless of which is more correct, it is now widely accepted that the neo-conservative impulse has been visible in modern American foreign policy and that it has left a distinct impact".[90]. (Adaptation of the two essays in Howard Spaeth, ed., "Lecture Notes for 'Persecution and the Art of Writing'" (Critical Edition by Hannes Kerber). Born in Germany to Jewish parents, Strauss later emigrated from Germany to the United States. But I also argue that we ought to go further". Strauss and the Straussians have paradoxically taught philosophically unsuspecting American conservatives, not least Roman Catholic intellectuals, to reject tradition in favor of ahistorical theorizing, a bias that flies in the face of the central Christian notion of the Incarnation, which represents a synthesis of the universal and the historical. Weber wanted to separate values from science but, according to Strauss, was really a derivative thinker, deeply influenced by Nietzsche's relativism. Great books are held to be written by authors/philosophers "of such sovereign critical self-knowledge and intellectual power that they can in no way be reduced to the general thought of their time and place",[99] with other works "understood as epiphenomenal to the original insights of a thinker of the first rank". They still endorsed the welfare state, but not necessarily in its contemporary form. Shorris, Earl. Strauss, Ryn argues, wrongly and reductively assumes that respect for tradition must undermine reason and universality. [24], A substantial number of neoconservatives were originally moderate socialists who were originally associated with the moderate wing of the Socialist Party of America (SP) and its successor party, Social Democrats, USA (SDUSA). [44][46], Strauss influenced The Weekly Standard editor Bill Kristol, William Bennett, Newt Gingrich, Antonin Scalia and Clarence Thomas, as well as Paul Wolfowitz. In a 2012 interview with CNN's Wolf Blitzer, former Secretary of State Colin Powell revised his position on gay marriage. Up until that year, Powell had only publicly endorsed one Democratic Party candidate, Barack Obama, for President of the United States. He taught at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem during the 195455 academic year. The Bush Doctrine of preemptive war was stated explicitly in the National Security Council (NSC) text "National Security Strategy of the United States". A primary focus on the Middle East and global Islam as the principal theater for American overseas interests. [69] The second typethe "gentle" nihilism expressed in Western liberal democracieswas a kind of value-free aimlessness and a hedonistic "permissive egalitarianism," which he saw as permeating the fabric of contemporary American society. He argued that both believe in the "existence of a long-term process of social evolution", though neoconservatives seek to establish liberal democracy instead of communism. These two facts may help explain, on the one hand, the intellectual prestige of Straussians, and on the other hand, the widespread success of Straussianism as an academic school.. Neoconservatism originated in the 1970s as a movement of anti-Soviet liberals and social democrats in the tradition of Truman, Kennedy, Johnson, Humphrey and Henry ('Scoop') Jackson, many of whom preferred to call themselves 'paleoliberals.' Harry Victor Jaffa (October 7, 1918 - January 10, 2015) was an American political philosopher, historian, columnist, and professor. In 1969 Strauss moved to Claremont McKenna College (formerly Claremont Men's College) in California for a year, and then to St. John's College, Annapolis in 1970, where he was the Scott Buchanan Distinguished Scholar in Residence until his death from pneumonia in 1973. . Strauss's abstract, ahistorical conception of natural right distorts genuine universality, Ryn contends. [39][40] Strauss emphasized the spirit of the Greek classics and Thomas G. West (1991) argues that for Strauss the American Founding Fathers were correct in their understanding of the classics in their principles of justice. He concludes by critiquing Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Edmund Burke. But I can never forget what it achieved as a moral force in an era of complete dissolution. Several neoconservatives played a major role in the Stop Trump movement in 2016, in opposition to the Republican presidential candidacy of Donald Trump, due to his criticism of interventionist foreign policies, as well as their perception of him as an "authoritarian" figure. [72], John McCain, who was the Republican candidate for the 2008 United States presidential election, endorsed continuing the second Iraq War, "the issue that is most clearly identified with the neoconservatives". Powell reiterated that pundits "exaggerated the centrality of preemption in U.S. strategythe breadth of U.S. strategy transcends the war on terrorism." Answer (1 of 3): A "Straussian" is someone heavily or decisively influenced by Leo Strauss, a 20th century philosopher and political scientist; they're most likely to be to some extent conservative, at least by academic standards. Some Straussians, like Scripps College philosophy professor Harry Neumann, actually became nihilists; Neumann arguing for it in his book Liberalism. She suggested that in some countries democracy was not tenable and the United States had a choice between endorsing authoritarian governments, which might evolve into democracies, or MarxistLeninist regimes, which she argued had never been ended once they achieved totalitarian control. [83][84] The Lincoln Project, a political action committee consisting of current and former Republicans with the purpose of defeating Trump in the 2020 United States presidential election and Republican Senate candidates in the 2020 United States Senate elections, has been described as being primarily made of neoconservative activists seeking to return the Republican party to Bush-era ideology. The approach "resembles in important ways the old New Criticism in literary studies". [77], Strauss constantly stressed the importance of two dichotomies in political philosophy, namely Athens and Jerusalem (reason and revelation) and Ancient versus Modern. PhD Thesis, University of Ottawa, 2011. [99] While it "is particularly influential among university professors of historical political theory it also sometimes serves as a common intellectual framework more generally among conservative activists, think tank professionals, and public intellectuals". This attitude was particularly pronounced among the conservatives of Strauss's era. As the policies of the New Left made the Democrats increasingly leftist, these intellectuals became disillusioned with President Lyndon B. Johnson's Great Society domestic programs. "From these things it is evident, that the city belongs among the things that exist by nature, and that man is by nature a political animal" (Aristotle, Leo Strauss, "An Introduction to Heideggerian Existentialism", 2746 in, "Exoteric Teaching" (Critical Edition by Hannes Kerber). It helped to stem the tide of 'progressive' leveling of venerable, ancestral differences; it fulfilled a conservative function. [89][90], Strauss's works were read and admired by thinkers as diverse as the philosophers Gershom Scholem, Walter Benjamin,[81] Hans-Georg Gadamer,[91] and Alexandre Kojve,[91] and the psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan. Furthermore, Strauss is often accused of having himself written esoterically. "[83], Although Strauss accepted the utility of religious belief, there is some question about his religious views. ", "Republican Hawks Need Liz Cheney in the Senate", "Neocon redux: How Chris Christie is just like Dick Cheney", "Chris Christie on ISIS, Iran, Syria, and Foreign Policy", "Tom Cotton's Run for Senate in Arkansas Makes Him the New Neocon Darling", "Why even the idea that neocon Senator Tom Cotton might run Trump's CIA is scary", "Lindsey Graham's 2016 strategy: Take down Rand Paul", "McConnell amendment pits GOP security establishment against Trump", "Neoconservatives Declare War on Donald Trump", "Marco Rubio Is Winning the Neocon Primary", "Top GOP member on House Intel calls for more Ukraine support", "U.S. Air strikes in Syria target Iranian-backed militia - Pentagon", "Adam Kinzinger Executes Neocon Vision for Ukraine", "DAN CRENSHAW: HEIR TO THE NEO-CONSERVATIVE THRONE", "Irving Kristol dies at 89; godfather of neoconservatism", "How Neoconservatives Conquered Washington and Launched a War", "Return of the Neocons: Trump's Surprising Cabinet Candidates", "Jeane J. Kirkpatrick; U.N. [59], Within a few years of the Gulf War in Iraq, many neoconservatives were endorsing the ousting of Saddam Hussein. [103] Indeed, to safeguard democracy, government intervention and budget deficits may sometimes be necessary, Kristol argues. and Thomas L. Pangle, "Epilogue: Leo Strauss and the History of Political Philosophy". 2023 The Foundation for Constitutional Government Inc. All rights reserved. Disputes over the non-aggression principle in domestic and foreign policy, especially given the doctrine of preemption, can impede (and facilitate) studies of the impact of libertarian precepts on neo-conservatism, but that of course didn't, and still doesn't, stop pundits from publishing appraisals. But Warren's article also hinted at a different kind of mystery: Anton, he reported, had been "inculcated in the Straussian conservative world of the Claremont Graduate School." Brad Torchia . She later served the Reagan Administration as Ambassador to the United Nations.[50]. . Robert Singh, "Neoconservatism in the age of Obama," in Inderjeet Parmar and Linda B. Miller, eds.. say that neocons "propose an untenable model for our nation's future" (p. 8) and then outline what they think is the inner logic of the movement: K. Dodds, K. and S. Elden, "Thinking Ahead: David Cameron, the Henry Jackson Society and BritishNeoConservatism,", American Society for the Defense of Tradition, Family and Property, Federation for American Immigration Reform, National Federation of Independent Business, Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism, United States Ambassador to the United Nations, 2020 United States House of Representatives elections, Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs, Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Economic Policy, foreign policy of the Reagan administration, foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration, Criticism of United States foreign policy, United States Attorney for the District of New Jersey, Director of the Central Intelligence Agency, Chief of Staff to the Vice President of the United States, Factions in the Republican Party (United States), "Nixon, the Great Society, and the Future of Social Policy", "The Neoconservative Anguish over Reagan's Foreign Policy", "Remaking the World: Bush and the Neoconservatives", Social Democrats USA and the Rise of Neoconservatism, "Dylan Matthews, "Meet Bayard Rustin" Washingtonpost.com, 28 August 2013", "Leo Strauss's Perspective on Modern Politics", "Jeane Kirkpatrick and the Cold War (audio)", "America faces a future of managing imperial decline", "The Lost Kristol Tapes: What the New York Times Bought", "Bernard Lewis Revisited:What if Islam isn't an obstacle to democracy in the Middle East but the secret to achieving it? 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