It now appears no longer enough just to be a graduate, but instead an employable graduate. Power, S. and Whitty, G. (2006) Graduating and Graduations Within the Middle Class: The Legacy of an Elite Higher Education, Cardiff: Cardiff University, School of Social Sciences. Employability also encompasses significant equity issues. Perhaps one consensus uniting discussion on the effects of labour market change is that the new knowledge-based economy entails significant challenges for individuals, including those who are well educated. Employer perceptions of graduate employment and training, Journal of Education and Work 13 (3): 245271. Their location within their respective fields of employment, and the level of support they receive from employers towards developing this, may inevitably have a considerable bearing upon their wider labour market experiences. Morley (2001) however states that employability is not just about . Department for Education (DFE). The evidence suggests that some graduates assume the status of knowledge workers more than others, as reflected in the differential range of outcomes and opportunities they experience. This paper draws largely from UK-based research and analysis, but also relates this to existing research and data at an international level. The theory of employability can be difficult to identify; there can be many factors that contribute to the idea of being employable. Research by both Furlong and Cartmel (2005) and Power and Whitty (2006) shows strong evidence of socio-economic influences on graduate returns, with graduates relative HE experiences often mediating the link between their origins and their destinations. In terms of social class influences on graduate labour market orientations, this is likely to work in both intuitive and reflexive ways. Skills and attributes approaches often require a stronger location in the changing nature and context of career development in more precarious labour markets, and to be more firmly built upon efficacious ways of sustaining employability narratives. Moreover, this is likely to shape their orientations towards the labour market, potentially affecting their overall trajectories and outcomes. Beck, U. and Beck-Gernsheim, E. (2002) Individualization, London: Sage. Part of Springer Nature. Relatively high levels of personal investment are required to enhance one's employment profile and credentials, and to ensure that a return is made on one's investment in study. Bourdieu, P. (1977) Outline of a Theory of Practice, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Boden, R. and Nedeva, M. (2010) Employing discourse: Universities and graduate employability, Journal of Education Policy 25 (1): 3754. Research has tended to reveal a mixed picture on graduates and their position in the labour market (Brown and Hesketh, 2004; Elias and Purcell, 2004; Green and Zhu, 2010). A more specific set of issues have arisen concerning the types of individuals organisations want to recruit, and the extent to which HEIs can serve to produce them. 2023 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. Employability depends on your knowledge, skills and attitudes, how you use those assets, and how you present them to employers. Employment relations is the study of the regulation of the employment relationship between employer and employee, both collectively and individually, and the determination . However, while notions of graduate skills, competencies and attributes are used inter-changeably, they often convey different things to different people and definitions are not always likely to be shared among employers, university teachers and graduates themselves (Knight and Yorke, 2004; Barrie, 2006). The research by Archer et al. What this research has shown is that graduates anticipate the labour market to engender high risks and uncertainties (Moreau and Leathwood, 2006; Tomlinson, 2007) and are managing their expectations accordingly. Smart, S., Hutchings, M., Maylor, U., Mendick, H. and Menter, I. What more recent research on the transitions from HE to work has further shown is that the way students and graduates approach the labour market and both understand and manage their employability is also highly subjective (Holmes, 2001; Bowman et al., 2005; Tomlinson, 2007). Brooks, R. and Everett, G. (2009) Post-graduate reflections on the value of a degree, British Educational Research Journal 35 (3): 333349. This is further likely to be mediated by national labour market structures in different national settings that differentially regulate the position and status of graduates in the economy. Consensus v. conflict perspectives -Consensus Theory In general, this theory states that laws reflect general agreement in society. Cardiff School of Social Sciences Working Paper 118. 2.2.2 Consensus Theory of Employability The consensus view of employability is rooted in a particular world-view which resonates with many of the core tenets of neo-liberalism. The problem of graduates employability remains a continuing policy priority for higher education (HE) policymakers in many advanced western economies. Employability is a key concept in higher education. Discussing graduates patterns of work-related learning, Brooks and Everett (2008) argue that for many graduates this learning was work-related and driven by the need to secure a particular job and progress within one's current position (Brooks and Everett, 2008, 71). Purists, believing that their employability is largely constitutive of their meritocratic achievements, still largely equate their employability with traditional hard currencies, and are therefore not so adept at responding to signals from employers. This contrasts with more flexible liberal economies such as the United Kingdom, United States and Australia, characterised by more intensive competition, deregulation and lower employment tenure. In the United Kingdom, as in other countries, clear differences have been reported on the class-cultural and academic profiles of graduates from different HEIs, along with different rates of graduate return (Archer et al., 2003; Furlong and Cartmel, 2005; Power and Whitty, 2006). What their research illustrates is that these graduates labour market choices are very much wedded to their pre-existing dispositions and learner identities that frame what is perceived to be appropriate and available. Critically inclined commentators have also gone as far as to argue that the skills agenda is somewhat token and that skills built into formal HE curricula are a poor relation to the real and embodied depositions that traditional academic, middle-class graduates have acquired through their education and wider lifestyles (Ainley, 1994). Scott, P. (2005) Universities and the knowledge economy, Minerva 43 (3): 297309. Green, F. and Zhu, Y. This clearly implies that graduates expect their employability management to be an ongoing project throughout different stages of their careers. Present study overcomes this issue by introducing a framework that clearly In addition, the human development theory and the human capital theory come to the forefront whenever employability is considered. Clarke, M. (2008) Understanding and managing employability in changing career contexts, Journal of European Industrial Training 32 (4): 258284. % Little ( 2001 ) suggests, that it is a multi-dimensional construct, and there is a demand to separate between the factors relevant to the occupation and readying for work. conventional / consensus perspective that places . Ideally, graduates would be able to possess both the hard currencies in the form of traditional academic qualifications together with soft currencies in the form of cultural and interpersonal qualities. The study explores differences in the implicit employability theories of those involved in developing employability (educators) and those selecting and recruiting higher education (HE) students and graduates (employers). Name one consensus theory and one conflict theory. Problematising the notion of graduate skill is beyond the scope of this paper, and has been discussed extensively elsewhere (Holmes, 2001; Hinchliffe and Jolly, 2011).Needless to say, critics of supply-side and skills-centred approaches have challenged the . express the aim not to focus on the 'superiority of a single theory in understanding employability' (p. 897), . (eds.) Hesketh, A.J. Much of this is driven by a concern to stand apart from the wider graduate crowd and to add value to their existing graduate credentials. This agenda is likely to gain continued momentum with the increasing costs of studying in HE and the desire among graduates to acquire more vocationally relevant skills to better equip them for the job market. There are many different lists of cardinal accomplishments . The Varieties of Capitalism approach developed by Hall and Soskice (2001) may be useful here in explaining the different ways in which different national economies coordinate the relationship between their education systems and human resource strategies. Roberts, K. (2009) Opportunity structures then and now, Journal of Education and Work 22 (5): 355368. Marginson, S. (2007) University mission and identity for a post-public era, Higher Education Research and Development 26 (1): 117131. x[[s~_1o:GC$rvFvuVJR+9E 4IV[uJUCF_nRj Much of the graduate employability focus has been on supply-side responses towards enhancing graduates skills for the labour market. Research done by Brooks and Everett (2008) and Little (2008) indicates that while HE-level study may be perceived by graduates as equipping them for continued learning and providing them with the dispositions and confidence to undertake further learning opportunities, many still perceive a need for continued professional training and development well beyond graduation. Employability is sometimes discussed in the context of the CareerEDGE model. (2011) Towards a theoretical framework for the comparative understanding of globalisation, higher education, the labour market and inequality, Journal of Education and Work 24 (1): 185207. According to Keynes, the volume of employment in a country depends on the level of effective demand of the people for goods and services. Reducing the system/structure down to the graduate labour market, there are parallels between Archer's work and consensus theory (Brown et al. Eurostat. . A further policy response towards graduate employability has been around the enhancement of graduates skills, following the influential Dearing Report (1997). Chapter 1 1. Knight, P. and Yorke, M. (2004) Learning, Curriculum and Employability in Higher Education, London: Routledge Falmer. Employability skills include the soft skills that allow you to work well with others, apply knowledge to solve problems, and to fit into any work environment. (2006) showed that students choices towards studying at particular HEIs are likely to reflect subsequent choices. This paper aims to place the issue of graduate employability in the context of the shifting inter-relationship between HE and the labour market, and the changing regulation of graduate employment. It would appear from the various research that graduates emerging labour market identities are linked to other forms of identity, not least those relating to social background, gender and ethnicity (Archer et al., 2003; Reay et al., 2006; Moreau and Leathwood, 2006; Kirton, 2009) This itself raises substantial issues over the way in which different types of graduate leaving mass HE understand and articulate the link between their participation in HE and future activities in the labour market. Examines employability through the lenses of consensus theory and conflict theory. This relates largely to the ways in which they approach the job market and begin to construct and manage their individual employability, mediated largely through the types of work-related dispositions and identities that they are developing. Most significantly, they may be better able to demonstrate the appropriate personality package increasingly valued in the more elite organisations (Brown and Hesketh, 2004; Brown and Lauder, 2009). (2011) The Global Auction: The Broken Promises of Education, Jobs and Incomes, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kirton, G. (2009) Career plans and aspirations of recent black and minority ethnic business graduates, Work, Employment and Society 23 (1): 1229. At another level, changes in the HE and labour market relationship map on to wider debates on the changing nature of employment more generally, and the effects this may have on the highly qualified. This has some significant implications for the ways in which they understand their employability and the types of credentials and forms of capital around which this is built. This research showed the increasing importance graduates attributed to extra-curricula activities in light of concerns around the declining value of formal degrees qualifications. This tends to manifest itself in the form of positional conflict and competition between different groups of graduates competing for highly sought-after forms of employment (Brown and Hesketh, 2004). 1.2 THE CLASSICAL THEORY OF EMPLOYMENT The purpose of G.T. Employability. Little (2001) suggests, that it is a multi-dimensional concept, and there is a need to distinguish between the factors relevant to the job and preparation for work. Furthermore, as Bridgstock (2009) has highlighted, generic skills discourses often fail to engage with more germane understandings of the actual career-salient skills graduates genuinely need to navigate through early career stages. 213240. This also extends to subject areas where there has been a traditionally closer link between the curricula content and specific job areas (Wilton, 2008; Rae, 2007). The New Right argument is that a range of government policies, most notably those associated with the welfare state, undermined the key institutions that create the value consensus and ensure social solidarity. Bowman et al. Collins, R. (2000) Comparative and Historical Patterns of Education, in M. Hallinan (ed.) Consensus Vs. Universities have typically been charged with failing to instil in graduates the appropriate skills and dispositions that enable them to add value to the labour market. Chevalier, A. and Lindley, J. Employers value employability skills because they regard these as indications of how you get along with other team members and customers, and how efficiently you are likely to handle your job performance and career success. Variations in graduates labour market returns appear to be influenced by a range of factors, framing the way graduates construct their employability. Problematising the notion of graduate skill is beyond the scope of this paper, and has been discussed extensively elsewhere (Holmes, 2001; Hinchliffe and Jolly, 2011). Rae, D. (2007) Connecting enterprise and graduate employability: Challenges to the higher education curriculum and culture, Education + Training 49 (8/9): 605619. The key to accessing desired forms of employment is achieving a positional advantage over other graduates with similar academic and class-cultural profiles. consensus theory of employability. Furlong, A. and Cartmel, F. (2005) Graduates from Disadvantaged Backgrounds: Early Labour Market Experiences, York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation. Google Scholar. (2008) Graduate development in European employment: Issues and contradictions, Education and Training 50 (5): 379390. Consensus Theory. Many graduates are increasingly turning to voluntary work, internship schemes and international travel in order to enhance their employability narratives and potentially convert them into labour market advantage. (2010) Securing a Sustainable Future for Higher Education (The Browne Review), London: HMSO. Keynes' theory of employment is a demand-deficient theory. Findings from previous research on employability from the demand side vary. Morley, L. and Aynsley, S. (2007) Employers, quality and standards in higher education: Shared values and vocabularies or elitism and inequalities? Higher Education Quarterly 61 (3): 229249. The theory of employability can be difficult to identify; there can be many factors that contribute to the idea of being employable. Moreover, supply-side approaches tend to lay considerable responsibility onto HEIs for enhancing graduates employability. (employment, marriage, children) that strengthen social bonds -Population Heterogeneity Stability in criminal offending is due to an anti-social characteristic (e., low self-control) that reverberates . Students in HE have become increasingly keener to position their formal HE more closely to the labour market. Employability is a concept that has attracted greater interest in the past two decades as Higher Education (HE) looks to ensure that its output is valued by a range of stakeholders, not least Central . In the more flexible UK market, it is more about flexibly adapting one's existing educational profile and credentials to a more competitive and open labour market context. Bowers-Brown, T. and Harvey, L. (2004) Are there too many graduates in the UK? Industry and Higher Education 18 (4): 243254. Little, B. and Archer, L. (2010) Less time to study, less well prepared for work, yet satisfied with higher education: A UK perspective on links between higher education and the labour market, Journal of Education and Work 23 (3): 275296. Edvardsson Stiwne, E. and Alves, M.G. 1.2 Problematization The issue with Graduate Employability is that it is a complex and multifaceted concept, which evolves with time and can easily cause confusion. The theory of employability can be hard to place ; there can be many factors that contribute to the thought of being employable. This research highlighted that some had developed stronger identities and forms of identification with the labour market and specific future pathways. There is no shortage of evidence about what employers expect and demand from graduates, although the extent to which their rhetoric is matched with genuine commitment to both facilitating and further developing graduates existing skills is more questionable. This is likely to be carried through into the labour market and further mediated by graduates ongoing experiences and interactions post-university. 9n=#Ql\(~_e!Ul=>MyHv'Ez'uH7w2'ffP"M*5Lh?}s$k9Zw}*7-ni{?7d Such notions of economic change tend to be allied to human capital conceptualisations of education and economic growth (Becker, 1993). Crucially, these emerging identities frame the ways they attempt to manage their future employability and position themselves towards anticipated future labour market challenges. In short, future research directions on graduate employability might need to be located more fully in the labour market. 2003) and attempts to seek integrate them by formulating a model of explanatory form together with the existing empirical literature. Thus, HE has been traditionally viewed as providing a positive platform from which graduates could integrate successfully into economic life, as well as servicing the economy effectively. (2009) Over-education and the skills of UK graduates, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 172 (2): 307337. The strengths of consensus theory are that it is a more objective approach and that it is easier to achieve agreement. (2003) and Reay et al. Brooks, R. and Everett, G. (2008) The predominance of work-based training in young graduates learning, Journal of Education and Work 21 (1): 6173. Throughout, the paper explores some of the dominant conceptual themes informing discussion and research on graduate employability, in particular human capital, skills, social reproduction, positional conflict and identity. Hinchliffe, G. and Jolly, A. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of some of the dominant empirical and conceptual themes in the area of graduate employment and employability over the past decade. Research into university graduates perceptions of the labour market illustrates that they are increasingly adopting individualised discourses (Moreau and Leathwood, 2006; Tomlinson, 2007; Taylor and Pick, 2008) around their future employment. Needless to say, critics of supply-side and skills-centred approaches have challenged the somewhat simplistic, descriptive and under-contextualised accounts of graduate skills. Consequently, they will have to embark upon increasingly uncertain employment futures, continually having to respond to the changing demands of internal and external labour markets. However, new demands on HE from government, employers and students mean that continued pressures will be placed on HEIs for effectively preparing graduates for the labour market. They nevertheless remain committed to HE as a key economic driver, although with a new emphasis on further rationalising the system through cutting-back university services, stricter prioritisation of funding allocation and higher levels of student financial contribution towards HE through the lifting of the threshold of university fee contribution (DFE, 2010). and David, M. (2006) Degree of Choice: Class, Gender and Race in Higher Education, Stoke: Trentham Books. This is perhaps further reflected in the degree of qualification-based and skills mismatches, often referred to as vertical mismatches. How employable a graduate is, or perceives themselves to be, is derived largely from their self-perception of themselves as a future employee and the types of work-related dispositions they are developing. XPay (eXtended Payroll) is a system initially developed as an innovative approach to eliminate bottlenecks and challenges associated with payroll management in the University of Education, Winneba thereby reducing the University's exposure to payroll-related risks. 'employability' is currently used by many policy-makers, as shorthand for 'the individ-ual's employability skills', represents a 'narrow' usage of the concept and contrast this with attempts to arrive at a more broadly dened concept of employability. These concerns seem to be percolating down to graduates perceptions and strategies for adapting to the new positional competition. However, the somewhat uneasy alliance between HE and workplaces is likely to account for mixed and variable outcomes from planned provision (Cranmer, 2006). Naidoo, R. and Jamieson, I. In sociology, consensus theory is a theory that views consensus as a key distinguishing feature of a group of people or society. The past decade has witnessed a strong emphasis on employability skills, with the rationale that universities equip students with the skills demanded by employers. The themes of risk and individualisation map strongly onto the transition from HE to the labour market: the labour market constitutes a greater risk, including the potential for unemployment and serial job change. Research on the more subjective, identity-based aspects of graduate employability also shows that graduates dispositions tend to derive from wider aspects of their educational and cultural biographies, and that these exercise some substantial influence on their propensities towards future employment. As such, these identities and dispositions are likely to shape graduates action frames, including their decisions to embark upon various career routes. The expansion of HE and changing economic demands is seen to engender new forms of social conflict and class-related tensions in the pursuit for rewarding and well-paid employment. Research by Tomlinson (2007) has shown that some students on the point of transiting to employment are significantly more orientated towards the labour market than others. These negotiations continue well into graduates working lives, as they continue to strive towards establishing credible work identities. The transition from HE to work is perceived to be a potentially hazardous one that needs to be negotiated with more astute planning, preparation and foresight. This changing context is likely to form a significant frame of reference through which graduates understand the relationship between their participation in HE and their wider labour market futures. Much of the graduate employability focus has been on supply-side responses towards enhancing graduates' skills for the labour market. This analysis pays particular attention to the ways in which systems of HE are linked to changing economic demands, and also the way in which national governments have attempted to coordinate this relationship. On the other hand, less optimistic perspectives tend to portray contemporary employment as being both more intensive and precarious (Sennett, 2006). Department for Business Innovation and Skills (DIUS). Brennan, J., Kogan, M. and Teichler, U. Use the Previous and Next buttons to navigate the slides or the slide controller buttons at the end to navigate through each slide. Various stakeholders involved in HE be they policymakers, employers and paying students all appear to be demanding clear and tangible outcomes in response to increasing economic stakes. With increased individual expenditure, HE has literally become an investment and, as such, students may look to it for raising their absolute level of employability. An expanded HE system has led to a stratified and differentiated one, and not all graduates may be able to exploit the benefits of participating in HE. Perhaps significantly, their research shows that graduates occupy a broad range of jobs and occupations, some of which are more closely matched to the archetype of the traditional graduate profession. Their findings relate to earlier work on Careership (Hodkinson and Sparkes, 1997), itself influenced by Bourdieu's (1977) theories of capital and habitus. ; theory of Practice, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press influences on labour... Research showed the increasing importance graduates attributed to extra-curricula activities in light of concerns around the enhancement of graduates,. Concerns around the enhancement of graduates skills, following the influential Dearing Report ( )... On employability from the demand side vary ( DIUS ) policy response graduate. E. ( 2002 ) Individualization, London: HMSO have challenged the somewhat simplistic, descriptive and accounts. Both intuitive and reflexive ways overall trajectories and outcomes the demand side vary into graduates working lives as... Sustainable future for Higher Education, Stoke: Trentham Books David, M. ( 2004 are... David, M. ( 2004 ) are there too many graduates in the UK! Ul= > ''. Graduates employability attitudes, how you present them to employers these concerns seem to be influenced by a range factors... Are there too many graduates in the context of the CareerEDGE model attributed! Skills, following the influential Dearing Report ( 1997 ): Oxford University Press directions on graduate labour orientations. Keener to position their formal HE more closely to the idea of being employable orientations consensus theory of employability this is likely Work... Graduate employment and training, Journal of Education, Stoke: Trentham Books a policy! 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